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eine reihe von kfz-zubehör. ersatzrad, brandschutz, feuerlöscher, verbandskasten, warndreieck notfall, jack, abschleppseil, rad schraubenschlüssel, pumpe. - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Eine Reihe von Kfz-Zubehör. Ersatzrad, Brandschutz, Feuerlöscher,

Ein Satz Kfz-Zubehör. Ersatzrad, Feuerlöscher, Erste-Hilfe-Kasten, Notfallwarndreieck, Wagenheber, Abschleppseil, Radschlüssel, Pumpe. Objekte, die auf weißem Hintergrund isoliert sind. 3d

motorrad-stoßdämpfer und rad, 3d render - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Motorrad-Stoßdämpfer und Rad, 3d render

zugeschnittenen schuss von jungen afro-amerikanischen sportler sitzen reifen und holding flasche wasser im fitness-studio - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

zugeschnittenen Schuss von jungen Afro-amerikanischen Sportler. ..

mountainbike fahrrad-rad. realistische 3d vektor-illustration - tyre cross section stock-grafiken, -clipart, -cartoons und -symbole

Mountainbike Fahrrad-Rad. Realistische 3D Vektor-Illustration

close-up teilansicht der sportler im fitness-studio fitness-studio trainieren trainieren - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Close-up Teilansicht der Sportler im Fitness-Studio Fitness-Studio

reifen von motocross bike - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Reifen von motocross bike

motorrad-rad und wand, 3d render - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Motorrad-Rad und Wand, 3d render

Motorradrad und -wand, 3D-Renderarbeiten

zugeschnittenen schuss von afrikanischer amerikanischer sportler sitzen in reifen und talkum-puder auf händen anwenden - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

zugeschnittenen Schuss von afrikanischer amerikanischer Sportler...

junge sportler trainieren mit großem reifen beim fitnesstraining - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Junge Sportler trainieren mit großem Reifen beim Fitnesstraining

reifen von motocross bike - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Reifen von motocross bike

fahrradreifen, realistische vektor-illustration - tyre cross section stock-grafiken, -clipart, -cartoons und -symbole

Fahrradreifen, realistische Vektor-Illustration

Fahrradreifen, realistische Vektorillustration. 3D-Fahrradreifen, Blanko-Ersatzteil isoliert auf Weiß.

mountainbike fahrrad-rad mit beispielhaften branding. realistische 3d vektor-illustration - tyre cross section stock-grafiken, -clipart, -cartoons und -symbole

Mountainbike Fahrrad-Rad mit beispielhaften Branding....

Mountainbike-Rad. Realistische 3D-Vektorillustration. Beispieltext, beispielhaftes Branding. Scheibenbremsscheibe.

vektor-fahrradreifen, vorlage für die werbung mit einem beispiel für text-layout - tyre cross section stock-grafiken, -clipart, -cartoons und -symbole

Vektor-Fahrradreifen, Vorlage für die Werbung mit einem Beispiel...

Fahrradreifen, Vorlage für Werbung mit einem Beispiel für Textlayout. Realistische Vektorillustration

mountainbike fahrrad-rad mit polierten felgen. realistische 3d vektor-illustration - tyre cross section stock-grafiken, -clipart, -cartoons und -symbole

Mountainbike Fahrrad-Rad mit polierten Felgen. Realistische 3D...

Mountainbike-Rad mit polierten Felgen. Realistische 3D-Vektorillustration.

motorrad-rad auf weiße, 3d rendern - tyre cross section stock-fotos und bilder

Motorrad-Rad auf weiße, 3d Rendern

Motorradrad auf weiß, 3D-Render-Arbeit

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How Car Tires Are Made and Measured

Modern transportation, as advanced as it is, has been rolling on an invention that traces its roots back some 5,500 years, the invention of the wheel. Over the intervening centuries, the wheel has been reinvented many times, and today is the most-common mode of transportation on the planet, after “feet.” Originally, wheels were solid wood, but spokes made them lighter. Later, wheels were “attired” with leather, iron, or steel, to improve lifespan and durability. Eventually, with the invention of the air-filled rubber tire, over a century ago, wheels could last longer, deliver better traction, and ride softer.

From your kid’s 12” bicycle to 14’ mining tires, weighing more than 6 tons each, tires are everywhere, and near 2 billion are produced worldwide every year. On your car or truck, whether you’re commuting to work or transporting family, friends, tools, or products, having the right tires in good condition makes for safe and comfortable travels year-round. Still, what exactly is a tire? How are they made? How do you know what tires to put on your ride?

How Tires are Made

From the outside, a tire might be mistaken for a rugged air-filled black rubber donut, but there’s more going on under the surface than meets the eye. In fact, unless you cut one apart, you would never see what’s really under the skin. Of course, we don’t recommend you cut open yours, so here’s a sample.

As you can see, there are multiple layers making up the average tire, rubber being just the most obvious. At the core of each tire are multiple layers of nylon and steel, giving it strength and shape. Without the steel belts and nylon body plies, the rubber would not hold its shape once pressurized. The body plies are wrapped around the steel bead wires, maintaining the inner diameter to keep the tire on the wheel. In construction, the bead wires, filler rubber, body plies, and steel belts form the basis for what is known as the carcass, but more is needed before this assembly can be called a tire.

The thin inner liner is molded to the carcass, creating a leak-proof (almost) sealed chamber when mounted on the wheel. The sidewall, shoulder, and tread cap are molded to the outside of the carcass. The tread cap is much thicker than the sidewall rubber and is molded with a tread pattern based on its intended use. The shoulder is basically a transition area, between the tread cap and the sidewall, and usually has some continuation of the tread pattern, though not as deep. Off-road tires, though, usually feature a more robust shoulder for improved traction in off-road and aired-down situations.

Tire Measurements and Other Markings

When you buy tires, you might ask for your specific year, make, and model, or you might ask for them by size. Shopping by vehicle usually works, but some vehicles may recommend more than one size, so it’s good to know how tires are measured so you can find the right one for your vehicle or application. Tires are usually sized using one of two standards – passenger-metric and flotation sizes.

P-Metric tires are measured in a combination of tread width in millimeters, aspect ratio, and rim size in inches. For example, the tires on the 2012 Toyota Camry SE V6 Limited are size P225/45R18, which can be broken down as follows:

  • P – P-Metric Tire
  • 225 – Tread Width of 225 mm
  • 45 – Sidewall Height Aspect Ratio of 45% of 225 mm, or 101 mm
  • R – Radial Construction, as opposed to Bias Construction used on vintage restorations and non-road vehicles.
  • 18 – Wheel Diameter of 18”

Flotation, or Light Truck, Tires on the other hand, may be measured as P-Metric tires, using a combination of tread width in millimeters, aspect ratio, and rim size in inches. A 2012 Chevrolet Silverado tire might be sized LT265/70R18, which means:

  • LT – Light Truck Tire
  • 265 – Tread Width of 265 mm
  • 70 – Sidewall Height Aspect Ratio of 70% of 265 mm, or 185 mm
  • R – Radial Construction
  • 18 – Wheel Diameter of 18”

On the other hand, some flotation tires might be measured by overall diameter, width, and wheel size, all in inches. Off-Road tires for a 2012 Jeep Wrangler Rubicon might be sized 32-1150R15, meaning:

  • 32 – Overall Tire Diameter of 32”
  • 1150 – Tread Width of 11.5”
  • R – Radial Construction
  • 15 – Wheel Diameter of 15”

Additionally, there are several tire markings that refer to weight rating, intended season, usage, traction, and wear ratings, to name a few. Here are a few of the most common and what they mean.

  • 95H or any two-digit number and a letter – Passenger Tire Load Index and Speed Rating. 95H is rated for 1,520 lb and up to 130 mph.
  • H or a single-letter – Light Truck Tire Load Range. H has 16 plies.
  • M+S – An All-Season Tread rated for mud and snow.
  • M+T – An Off-Road Tire with extra traction for mud and terrain.
  • DOT Code – This code specifies the manufacturer, factory, tire mold, and date of production.

Dobbs Tire & Auto Centers

If all this information is a little overwhelming, that’s ok. It’s why Dobbs Tire & Auto Centers has been serving the St. Louis area with the best tire services for over forty years. We can help you take the guesswork out of getting the right tires for your car, truck, SUV, season, or planned activities. With 42 locations to serve you, there’s probably a shop near your home, job, or school. Just drop in or give us a call.

Selection of busbar trunking section

When current flows through a conductor, the conductor heats up. The amount of energy released by constant current is determined from the expression:

where

is the amount of heat released, W⋅s; I is the current in the conductor, A; R is the resistance of the conductor, Ohm; t is the current passage time, s.
Part of the generated heat goes to increase the temperature of the conductor, and part is given off to the environment.
Airborne tires are cooled primarily by convection due to air movement near the surface of the conductor. Heat removal by radiation is small due to the relatively low heating temperatures of the conductor. Heat removal due to thermal conductivity is negligible due to the low thermal conductivity of air.
The temperature of the conductor during the passage of current rises until thermal equilibrium is reached, when the heat released in the conductor turns out to be equal to the heat removed from its surface to the environment. The excess of the conductor temperature over the ambient temperature is proportional to the amount of heat generated, and therefore, to the square of the current passing through the conductor for a long time and depends on the conditions of the busbars.
The task of calculating tires for heating usually comes down to determining the current at which the temperature of the conductor does not exceed the permissible value. In this case, the permissible heating temperature of the conductor, the conditions for its cooling and the ambient temperature must be known. The maximum allowable tire heating temperature during continuous operation is 70°C. This temperature is generally adopted to ensure the satisfactory operation of the bolt contacts, as a rule, found in busbars. With short-term heating, for example, short-circuit currents. permissible limiting temperatures for copper tires 300°C, for aluminum 200°C. Long-term operation of tires at temperatures exceeding 110°C leads to a significant reduction in their mechanical strength due to annealing. The design ambient temperature for bare conductors according to the current PUE is 25°C.
The load capacity of the conductor is characterized by a long-term permissible load current, determined from the conditions of its heating at given temperature differences between the conductor and the environment.
Consider the definition of the load capacity of homogeneous bare conductors. At thermal equilibrium, the amount of heat released per unit time by current I in a wire with resistance R is equal to the amount of heat removed to the environment over the same time:

where

- heat transfer coefficient by convection and radiation (the thermal conductivity of air is low), equal to the amount of heat removed to the environment from the surface of the conductor with a temperature difference between the conductor and the environment; F is the conductor cooling surface, ; — temperature of the conductor and the environment, °C.
If the heating temperature of the conductor is equated to the long-term allowable and the calculated ambient temperature is taken, then from the condition (10-22) it is possible to determine the long-term allowable current:

Thus, under given temperature conditions, the load capacity of the conductor increases with an increase in its cooling surface F, heat transfer coefficient

and a decrease in its electrical resistance.
Calculation of long-term permissible currents according to the indicated formulas is quite difficult, therefore, in practical calculations of power networks, ready-made tables of continuous permissible load currents on tires from different materials and under different laying conditions, determined at a long-term permissible ambient temperature, are used. In this regard, checking busbar trunking for heating is reduced to checking the fulfillment of condition

where

is the maximum operating current of the circuit in which the conductor is included; - long-term allowable from the conditions of heating the load current of the busbar.
The presence of the skin effect phenomenon leads to the fact that with alternating current the active resistance is always somewhat greater than with direct current. Therefore, according to the formula (10-23), all other things being equal, the permissible load current of the conductor with alternating current is somewhat less than with direct current. This phenomenon is most significant for a solid section of the busbar, for example, a busbar with a rectangular cross section.
Sometimes tubular busbars are used. Uncut pipes use metal located only on the surface of the section, as a result of which the increase in resistance from the skin effect is small and the allowable loads at direct and alternating currents are approximately the same.
In installations of all voltages, rigid busbars are painted with colored enamel paints. In addition to making it easier to navigate and prevent tire corrosion, painting also affects the tire's load capacity. The constant radiation of painted tires is much greater than that of unpainted tires, so the cooling of the tires by radiation is improved, which in turn leads to an increase in the load capacity of the tires. Under constant temperature conditions, the permissible load current of painted tires is 12-15% more than that of unpainted ones.
The largest aluminum bar of rectangular section 120x10 mm sq. has a long-term permissible current at alternating current, equal to 2070 A. At a higher load current, several strips are used per phase, assembled in a common package and fixed together on support insulators. The distance between the strips in the package is normally the thickness of one strip, which is necessary to cool the tire in the package. With an increase in the number of strips per phase, the allowable load increases disproportionately to the number of strips in the package. With alternating current, in addition, the effect of proximity also affects (for more details, see the section). All this leads to the fact that the load capacity of a package of several tires is less than the total load capacity of the same number of identical tires of the same size.
To ensure that the operating conditions do not exceed the allowable voltage losses, busbar trunkings are calculated according to voltage losses, as described in the section.

Permissible continuous currents for painted bars are shown in the tables below. They are taken based on the allowable temperature of their heating + 70 °C at an air temperature of +25 °C.
When rectangular busbars are placed flat, the currents given in the table for rectangular busbars must be reduced by 5% for busbars with strip widths up to 60 mm and by 8% for busbars with strip widths over 60 mm.
When choosing busbars of large cross-sections, it is necessary to choose the most economical design solutions in terms of throughput, providing the smallest additional losses from the surface effect and the proximity effect and the best cooling conditions (reducing the number of strips in the package, rational package design, the use of profile tires, etc. ).

21.3 -
Permissible continuous current for round and tubular bars
diameter, mm Round buses Copper pipes Aluminum pipes steel pipes
current*, and internal and external diameters, mm current, and in the inside. and outer diameter, mm Current, A Nominal diameter, mm Wall thickness, mm Outer diameter, mm AC, A
copper 0087 without incision with longitudinal permission
6 155/155 120/120 12/15 340 13/16 295 2, 8 13.5 -
7 195/195 150/150/150 14/18 460 /20 17 90 -
8 235/235 180/180 16/20 505 18/22 425 15 3.2
10 320/
12 415/415 320/ 390/ 435/435 25/30 830 36/40 765 40 4,0 48 255 -
16 610/615 475/475 29/34 925 35/40 850 50 4. 5 60 320 -
1S 720/725 560/560 35/45 35/45/45 35/45/11 45 935 65 4.5 75.5 390 -
19 780/785 605/610 40/45 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 957 45/50 957 45/50 957 45/50 957 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 45/50 4.5 88.5 455 -
20 835/840 650/655 45/50 1330 50/5550/550/550 5.0 114 670 770
21 900/905 695/700 49/55 1580 54/60 1340 125 5,5 140 800 890
22 955/965 740/745 53/60 1860 64/70 1545 150 5,5 165 900 1000
25 1140/1165 885/900 62/70 2295 74/80 1770 - - - - -
27 1270/1290 980/1000 72/80 2610 72/80 2035 - - - - -
28 1325/1360 1025/1050 75/85 3070 75/85 2400 - - - - -
30 1450/1490 1120/1155 90/ 95 2460 90/95 1925 - - - - -
35 1770/1865 1370/1450 95/100 3060 90/100 2840 - - - - -
38 1960/2100 1510/1620 - - - - - - - - -
40 2080/2260 1610/1750 - - - - - - - -

on the pole or phase 955/960
Permissible long-term current for rectangular tires
Sensor, mm Copper tires PLAs
dimensions, mm current*, and
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
15x3 210 - - - 165 - - 16x2,5 55/70
20x3 275 - - - 215 - - 20x2,5 60/90
25x3 340 - - - 265 - - 25x2,5 75/110
30x4 475 - - - 365/370 - - 20x3 65/100
40x4 625 -/1090 - - 480 -/855 - 25x5 80/120
40x5 700/705 -/1250 - - 540/545 -/965 - 30x3 95/140
50x5 860/870 -/1525 -/1895 - 665/670 -/1180 -/1470 - 40x5 125/190
50x6 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087 -/170087// 740/745 -/1315 -/1655 - 50x3 155/230
60x6 1125/1145 1740/1990 2240/2495 - 870/880 1350/1555 1720/1940 - 60x5 185/290
80x6 1480/1510 2110/2630 2720/3220 - 1150/1170 1630/2055 2100/2460 - 70x3 215/320
100x6 1810/1875 2470/3245 3170/3940 - 1425/1455 1935/2515 2500/3040 - 75x3 230/345
60x8 1320/1345 2160/2485 2790/3020 - 1025/1040 1680/1840 2180/2330 - 80x3 245/365
80x8 1690/1755 2620/3095 3370/3850 - 1320/1555 2040/2400 2620/2975 - 90x3 275/410
100x8 2080/2180 3060/3810 3930/4690 - 1625/1690 2390/2945 3050/3620 - 100x3 305/460
120x8 2400/2600 3400/4400 4540/5600 - 1900/2040 2650/3350 3580/4250 - 20x4 70/115
60x10 1475/1525 2560/2725 3300/3530 - 1155/1180 2010/2110 2650/2720 - 22x4 75/125
80x10 1900/1990 3100/3510 3990/4450 - 1480/1540 2410/2735 3100/3440 - 25x4 85/140
100x10 2310/2470 3610/4325 4650/5385 5300/6060 1820/1910 2860/3350 3650/4160 4150/4400 30x4 100/165
120x10 2650/2950 4100/5000 5200/6250 5900/6800 2070/2300 3200/3900 4100/4860 4650/5200 40x4 130/220
50x4 165/270
60x4 195/325
70x4 225/375
80x4 260/430
90x4 290/480
7 7 100X4 325/535

* The values ​​of the alternating current are given, the vegetative 9, constant

051
Permissible continuous current for four-strip busbars with stripes arranged on the sides of the square (“hollow pack”)
Dimensions, mm Shin
h b h2 h copper aluminum
80 8 140 900 2560 5750 4550
80 10 144 160 3200 6400 5100
100 8 160 185 3200 7000 5550
100 10 164 188 4000 7700 6200
120 10 4 6 520 2730 -
75 35 5,5 6 695 3250 2670
100 45 4. 5 8 775 3620 2820
100 45 6 8 1010 12 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 35A0056 55 6,5 10 1370 5500 4640
150 65 7 10 1785 700 5650
175 80 8 12 2440 8550 6430
20056 90 10 14 3435 9900 9550
200 90 12 16 4040 10500 8830
225 105 12,5 16 4880 12500 10300
250 115 12. 5 16 5450 - 10800

All pages of the section on WebSor

90,000 permissible current for copper tires

The calculation of the cross-section of a copper bus for long-term permissible currents must be carried out in accordance with chapter 1.3 of the "Electrical Installation Rules" issued by the USSR Ministry of Energy in 1987. That is, the same PUE 1.3.24, familiar to all electricians " When choosing busbars of large cross-sections, it is necessary to choose the most economical design solutions in terms of throughput, providing the smallest additional losses from the surface effect and the proximity effect and the best cooling conditions (reducing the number of strips in the package, rational package design, the use of profile tires, etc.) .". Based on them, the permissible continuous currents for bare wires and buses are selected. In addition, it is often possible to hear in the electrical engineering environment that this is the current carrying capacity of a copper strip.


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